The transformation of snow to ice and the occlusion of gases

Schwander, Jakob (1989). The transformation of snow to ice and the occlusion of gases. In: Oeschger, H.; Langway, C. C. (eds.) The environmental record in glaciers and ice sheets. Physical, Chemical, and Earth Sciences Research Report: Vol. 8 (pp. 53-67). John Wiley & Sons

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The gases enclosed in the bubbles of glacier ice represent samples of the atmosphere approximately from the time of bubble formation. The age of this air is different from the surrounding ice. Also, the age cannot be given by a simple value but is described by an age distribution. This age distribution is determined by the mixing in the permeable firn layer and the air trapping rate at the firn-ice transition. At present it is possible to estimate the age distribution, using model calculations, in special cases. More data. especially on the spatial variability of the air permeability and diffusivity in the firn, are needed to permit modeling of more general cases. Tracer experiments would be a further possibility to assess the age of the air in the bubbles of ice. Due to physical and chemical processes, the concentrations of the gases in the bubbles may differ from the atmospheric concentrations. Apparently the gas compositions in bubbles of very cold glaciers (no surface melting during summer) do not differ from samples of the atmosphere.

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